Spatial and Temporal Dimensions: 2D vs. 3D in Serious Games for IT Security

Serious games are an emerging tool for raising cybersecurity awareness and training employees, including in organisations operating critical infrastructures (CI). However, the specific role of spatial game design –such as 2D user interface (UI) environments versus 3D first-person worlds – remains largely unexplored. In this study, we investigate how the spatial dimension of a serious game influences learning outcomes, perceived immersion, and learner motivation in the CI context. We developed two conceptually and content-wise identical games: (1) a 2D UI-based card game and (2) a 3D first-person game set in a virtual hospital environment. In a between-subjects design (n = 159; 2D n = 77, 3D n = 82), participants completed a pre-test, played either the 2D or the 3D game, and responded to an immediate post-test and an EGameFlow-based questionnaire. A second knowledge post-test followed one week later. Our results show that both games improve cybersecurity knowledge, but we find no significant differences between the 2D and 3D versions in terms of knowledge gain, immersion, or motivation. Statistical analyses included paired t-tests for pre–post comparisons, Welch’s two-sample t-tests for between-group comparisons, and Cohen’s d for effect sizes.